Sport and Society

B1141, Week One

Introduction

Today I would like you to:

  • Interrogate the role of sport as cultural & social practice
  • Critically examine lived experiences within sport
  • Reflect on your own engagement with sport
  • Understand how Functionalism and Conflict Theory help us understand the role of sport in society

Part 1. The Familiar Made Strange

Sport is everywhere

  • Sport permeates daily life: screens, headlines, conversations

  • Not neutral: sparks pride, disappointment, nostalgia, euphoria

  • Connects through teams/tournaments, creating belonging (fleeting/contested)

  • Its ubiquity makes it easy to feel but rarely question

Think of a time when sport genuinely moved you, not just as entertainment, but as something that struck you emotionally, politically, or socially.

Why did it matter?

It’s rarely questioned

  • Rarely interrogate our assumptions about sport - often seen as “self-evident”:

    • natural, apolitical, inherently ‘good’ part of life.

  • No cultural practice is neutral.

    • what we perceive as ‘natural’ often deeply structured by history, ideology, social institutions.

Sport and society

  • Sport doesn’t simply exist in society

    • it’s shaped by, and in turn shapes, the values/ power structures of that society.

This module asks: What work is sport doing in our lives and culture?

Write down three adjectives you might instinctively use to describe sport. Now ask yourself where did those associations come from? What assumptions underlie them?

Part 2. What is Sport For?

If sport disappeared tomorrow, what would society lose?

Sport has many functions

  • Sport celebrated for ability to promote health/physical wellbeing

  • Linked to national pride: Olympic tables, football chants, soft power, image-building

  • Vast commercial enterprise: billions via broadcasting, sponsorship, branding

  • Key to personal development: shaping values, character, identity across lifetime

Some contradictions in modern sport

  • Sport represents fairness/merit but shaped by inequality, exclusion, advantage

  • Framed as unifying, yet fosters tribalism, nationalism, division

  • Celebrates individual achievement, yet rewards access to elite facilities/resources

  • Tensions don’t invalidate sport but demand interrogation of assumptions

Sociology helps us ask…

  • Whose stories dominate our understanding of sport?

  • Whose experiences remain marginal or invisible?

  • What do the dominant assumptions about sport (meritocracy, neutrality, universality) obscure?

and…

Sociology helps us ask…

  • Whose stories dominate our understanding of sport?

  • Whose experiences remain marginal or invisible?

  • What do the dominant assumptions about sport (meritocracy, neutrality, universality) obscure?

Choose one: health, national pride, profit, or identity.

Now ask who is excluded from that benefit, and why?

Theories

⬇

Functionalism

Conflict Theory

Critical Theory

Functionalism

  • Sport plays vital role in maintaining social cohesion.

  • Integrates individuals into wider society, promotes shared norms, provides structured, rule-bound outlets for competition.

  • Large-scale events (Olympics, World Cups) expressions of national unity & collective identity.

Talcott Parsons

Institutions like sport as regulators of social behaviour and contributors to system stability.

Emile Durkheim

Emphasised role of ritual and the collective conscience.

Recognises the positive social effects of sport but tends to overlook power imbalances or structural inequality.

For Functionalists, the system works…so long as it continues to function.

Conflict Theory and sport (1)

  • Conflict theorists (rooted in Marxist thought) see sport as site of struggle

    • over resources
    • over access
    • over symbolic dominance

Conflict Theory and sport (2)

  • They argue that sport reflects & reinforces interests of dominant groups

    • economically
    • racially
    • culturally

Conflict Theory and sport (3)

For example: increasing commercialisation of elite sport often comes at expense of grassroots initiatives and equitable access.

  • Marx pointed to class conflict as engine of social change;
  • Gramsci introduced idea of hegemony;
    • dominant groups maintaining power by shaping cultural norms and common sense.

Critical Theories (1)

Forms of Critical Theory

⬇

Feminist Theory

Critical Race Theory

Post-Colonial Theory

Critical Theories (2)

Critical theorists go further by interrogating intersections of race, gender, sexuality, and post-colonial legacies within sport.

Types of Critical Theory

  • Feminist theory: critiques exclusion/sexualisation in women’s sport; visibility, funding, legitimacy unequal

  • Critical race theory: examines racialised narratives shaping recruitment, representation, perception (esp. coaching, commentary, media)

  • Post-colonial theory: challenges global sport structures echoing imperial hierarchies; whose values dominate institutions

These theories can be challenging. They ask us not just to see injustice, but to see how it is sustained - often in ways that feel normal or entertaining.

Theories in context - 2022 World Cup (Qatar)

Consider how each theory helps interpret a complex global event:

  • Functionalism

    • celebration of global sport, shared rituals, moments of national pride.

  • Conflict theory

    • widespread exploitation of migrant labour; economic inequalities between nations; profit-driven decision-making.

  • Critical theories

    • LGBTQ+ exclusion; restrictions on women’s rights; cultural double standards media

What does the World Cup in Qatar tell us about who global sport is for, and who is made invisible in the process?

Part 3. How Did We Get Here?

The history of sport

  • Sport history = more than timeline or list of athletes…reflects wider social, cultural, political forces.

  • Key questions to ask

    • Who decides what counts as “sport”?

    • What roles has sport played in society?

    • How have race, gender, class, and empire shaped its evolution?

  • Sport isn’t fixed; its meaning shifts across time and place. Our task is to trace and question those shifts.

Sport in the Ancient World (1)

Ancient Olympics (776 BCE onwards)

  • Religious festival dedicated to Zeus

  • Brought together city-states → political truce during the Games

  • Honour, prestige, and identity wrapped into performance

Sport in the Ancient World (2)

  • Sparta

    • Physical training linked to military preparedness

  • Rome

    • Gladiatorial combat and spectacles in the Colosseum

    • Entertainment + political control (“bread and circuses”)

    • Sport as a tool of social cohesion and distraction

Pre-1700s: Ritual, custom, & play (1)

  • Medieval/early modern sport-like practices as communal, seasonal rituals

    • Shrovetide football, animal baiting, May Day games blurred play, festivity, ritual

  • Local, improvised, tied to rural rhythms

    • No codified rules or clear player/spectator divide

Pre-1700s: Ritual, custom, & play (2)

  • Movement expressive: symbolising abundance, fertility, social reversal, not athletic performance

  • Noisy, chaotic, public; sometimes challenged social order

  • Religious/political elites (esp. Puritans) sought suppression as “sinful”/“disruptive”

  • Not “primitive sports” but cultural practices of expression, not competition

1700s-1830s: Regulation & rationalisation (1)

  • 18th century - play becomes more regulated, measured, moralised.

  • Enlightenment ideals & industrial capitalism reshaped time, space, and the body.

  • Traditional games challenged by:

    • Factory owners demanding discipline

    • Religious leaders promoting self-control

    • Elites condemning street play as disorderly

1700s-1830s: Regulation & rationalisation (2)

  • In their place grew structured entertainments - prizefighting, cockfighting, horse racing, and early cricket.

1700s-1830s: Regulation & rationalisation (3)

  • These featured:

    • Ticketed enclosures

    • Formal rules and betting systems

    • Growing professionalism

  • The body became a site of discipline -> trained for work, performance, and control.

  • Leisure split: private refinement for elites, regulated amusement for workers.

1830-1900: Codification & control (1)

  • This period marked formal codification of sport, driven by elite schools and urban clubs.

  • At Rugby, Eton, and similar institutions:

    • Sport designed to instil discipline, moral values, imperial masculinity.

    • Rules standardised; games became tools for character-building.

Field games at Eton College

1830-1900: Codification & control (2)

  • Industrial workers gained more access to organised sport via:

    • Saturday half-days

    • Factory clubs and local competitions

    • Growth of railways and newspapers, enabling national contests and mass spectatorship

1830-1900: Codification & control (3)

Class divisions deepened:

  • Amateurism (upper class) framed as noble/virtuous

  • Professionalism (working class) labelled corrupt/mercenary

  • Football, rugby, cricket, athletics structured as national pastimes with leagues, rules, official bodies

1870s-1930s: Sport, empire, & identity (1)

  • As empire expanded, sport became tool of imperial control and cultural diffusion.

  • Cricket, rugby, and football exported to colonies to promote:

    • Moral discipline, obedience, and assimilation

    • British notions of “civilisation” and “order”

1870s-1930s: Sport, empire, & identity (2)

  • Colonised peoples reclaimed and redefined these sports:

    • Indian, Caribbean, and South African athletes used imperial games to express identity, pride, and resistance

  • These acts form part of sport’s “counter-history”

1870s-1930s: Sport, empire, & identity (3)

  • Sport also fed domestic nationalism:

    • The Olympics revived ideals of universal brotherhood but often excluded by race, class, and gender

  • Sport became central to imagining the “nation-state” and its symbols

Olympic Revival (1896)

1940s-1980s: Mass culture, state policy, & everyday life (1)

Post-war period = expansion of state involvement in sport across multiple domains:

  • Education: PE mandatory in schools, emphasising health, order, civic values.

  • Public provision: sports centres, leisure facilities, local leagues funded as part of welfare policy.

1940s-1980s: Mass culture, state policy, & everyday life (2)

  • Global prestige: Olympic and World Cup success became markers of national power.

  • Television revolutionised sport - expanding audiences, sponsorship, and entertainment value.

  • Key developments:

    • Decline of amateur ideals

    • Rise of full-time professionalism

    • Growth of regional sporting identities (e.g. Scottish football, Welsh rugby)

1940s-1980s: Mass culture, state policy, & everyday life (3)

  • Persistent exclusions:

    • Women’s sport underfunded and underrepresented

    • Racial minorities stereotyped and marginalised

  • PE promoted discipline over expression

This post-war narrative of “greater access” should be balanced by awareness of who remained/remains excluded and how.

1900s-present: Globalisation, commodification, surveillance (1)

  • Sport has become hyper-commercial global industry:

    • Driven by TV rights, sponsorships, mega-events

    • Athletes marketed as brands and revenue streams

  • Technology reshapes performance:

    • GPS, biometrics, VAR, data analytics

    • Bodies trained for efficiency, exposure, profit

1900s-present: Globalisation, commodification, surveillance (2)

  • New ethical concerns:

    • Migrant labour exploitation

    • Racial abuse, algorithmic bias, digital profiling

    • Mental health crises among elite athletes

  • Sport as site of protest:

    • Athlete activism on race, gender, and injustice (e.g. BLM, LGBTQ+ advocacy)

    • Yet dissent often commodified or suppressed

Part 4. Sport as Cultural Practice

Sport as symbol & structure

  • Sport more than leisure or competition: a cultural form with symbolic meaning

  • Reflects and reproduces dominant values: heroism, sacrifice, discipline, competitiveness (all shaped by context)

  • Like ritual: repetition, set stages (pitch, ring, court), defined roles (player, fan, commentator), rule-bound choreography

  • Rituals express, maintain, and sometimes challenge society’s moral order

Think of a major sporting event you’ve watched. Strip away the score…what remains? Ritual, symbolism, hierarchy, performance?

What values are we invited to cheer for and what happens to those who don’t fit that script?

Power & identity

  • Sport not an open field. It’s structured by access, visibility, and legitimacy.

  • Consider not only who plays, but who is seen, who is celebrated, and who is rendered peripheral.

  • Sport reflects & shapes identities:

    • race
    • class
    • gender
    • sexuality
    • national belonging

Who is allowed to belong in sport, and who must justify their presence?

Media as amplifier

  • Media/sport in symbiosis
    • sport gives drama/conflict/character; media amplifies/frames
  • Representation never neutral
    • constructs heroes/villains, underdogs/favourites, disappointments/redemptions

Language and stereotypes

  • Language loaded with racial, gendered, classed assumptions (“intelligent” vs “instinctive,” “passionate” vs “out of control”)

  • “Natural athlete” (often racialised) contrasted with “strategic/disciplined” white player

  • Not quirks; reinforce cultural logics of who counts as gifted vs deserving

Can you recall an example where a sports commentary or headline made you pause, or feel uneasy?

Commercialisation & commodification

  • Modern sport = multi-billion industry

  • Clubs shift from local institutions to global brands; athletes as influencers, marketing tools, assets

  • Fans reframed as consumers: passion monetised, identity sold via merchandise/media

  • Raises questions: authentic and profitable? community values in commodified space?

  • Tension not abstract - fans feel dissonance between loyalty and market logic

The ethics of spectacle

  • Spectatorship brings its own ethical dilemmas.

  • We want spectacle but at what cost?

What forms of risk or exploitation do we tolerate (perhaps even celebrate) because they come wrapped in the language of sport?

Part 5. Uncomfortable Questions

The “dark side” of sport

  • Beneath spectacle:

    • doping, corruption, exploitation, abuse scandals

  • Romanticised pain/sacrifice (“play through injury”) conceals harm

  • Ideal of sport as pure/meritocratic functions as myth

Whose values?

  • Sport reflects dominant values: competition, discipline, ranking, spectacle

  • Not neutral but align with Western, capitalist, patriarchal frameworks

  • Raises questions: whose stories told, whose bodies commodified, whose labour taken for granted?

Think of a sport you know well. What values does it reward? Who benefits, who is excluded?

Resistance & inequality

  • Sport as site of resistance: Kaepernick, Rapinoe, Rashford

  • Costs: stalled careers, lost sponsorships, backlash; protests often commodified

  • Inequalities persist across race, gender, class, disability

  • Gap between inclusion rhetoric and systemic reality

::: {.flex-container style=“display: flex; align-items: center; height: 80%;”} ::: point Inclusion = more than access; about belonging, agency, recognition

Part 6. Stories from the Ground

Everyday & grassroots sport

  • Sport lived through PE lessons, five-a-side, team rituals, colours worn

  • Shapes identity, community, emotion…mirrors wider cultural scripts

  • Grassroots = invisible infrastructure: clubs, volunteers, coaches

  • Offer structure, belonging, hope yet underfunded and overlooked by elites

Who first made you feel you belonged in sport?

Marginalised experiences

  • Gender: subtle exclusions, microaggressions, resilience, new norms carved out

  • Disability: Paralympics celebrated, but everyday access limited; attitudes often bigger barrier

  • Race: celebrated on pitch yet marginalised in leadership/media; hypervisibility & invisibility coexist

::: {.flex-container style=“display: flex; align-items: center; height: 80%;”} ::: point Racism in sport not isolated moments but patterns shaping belonging

Intersections

  • Experiences shaped by overlapping identities (race, gender, class, disability, sexuality)

  • Crenshaw’s intersectionality: oppressions intersect, compounding exclusion

  • Without intersectional lens, inclusion efforts risk being superficial

Part 7. Group Discussion

Discussion Focus

  • What does your relationship with sport reveal about the kind of society you live in?
  • Use your own sporting experiences - whether as a participant, fan, or critic - to explore how sport connects to wider patterns of social life, power, and belonging.
  • This week’s goal is to reflect on how personal stories reveal social structures.

Group Roles

  • Facilitator - Guides discussion and ensures balanced participation

  • Connector - Links group’s ideas to theory, readings, or wider themes

  • Explorer - Brings a challenging question or alternative viewpoint

  • Reflector - Summarises group’s key insights aloud at the end to help everyone prepare their written response

Discussion Format (15–20 minutes)

Step 1 - Sharing (5 mins)

  • Each group member shares one short story or example from their own sporting experience.

  • Consider how sport reflected something about your social context…perhaps in terms of gender roles, class expectations, national pride, inclusion or exclusion.

Step 2 - Exploring (10 mins)

As a group, identify common themes or key differences. You might explore:

  • Whether sport in your life felt more like a force for connection, division, or control

  • How your experiences reflect larger systems like class, race, or gender

  • If your understanding of sport’s social role has shifted

Step 3 - Reflecting (5 mins)

  • The Reflector gives a brief spoken summary of the group’s key insights, highlighting anything surprising, unresolved, or especially thought-provoking.

  • This helps everyone prepare their individual submission.

Your Individual Task

After the discussion, write your own 150-word reflection responding to the following prompts:

  • What was one key idea or theme that emerged in your group?

  • Was there a disagreement or moment that challenged your perspective?

  • How did this discussion expand or shift your thinking about sport and society?

Guidance

Submit this by Friday of this week (5pm), via myplace.

Remember: Your personal context (where you’re from, how you’ve engaged with sport, and what it means to you) will differ from others. That diversity is your strength this week. Reflect honestly, listen generously, and connect your story to the bigger picture.